Topic TD1 — Peace, Justice & Forgiveness
At the heart of most religious traditions is a profound commitment to peace (shalom in Judaism, salaam in Islam) as the ideal state of human society. However, peace is not merely the absence of war, but the presence of justice. In the prophetic tradition of the Hebrew Bible, there can be no true peace where the poor are exploited or the weak are oppressed. For Christians, Jesus is the "Prince of Peace" (Isaiah 9:6), and his followers are called to be "peacemakers" (Matthew 5:9). Forgiveness is the spiritual mechanism that makes peace possible after conflict. In Christianity, forgiveness is a command: "Forgive us our sins, as we forgive those who sin against us." It is the act of letting go of the right to retaliation, following the example of Jesus on the cross who prayed, "Father, forgive them, for they do not know what they are doing" (Luke 23:34).
In Islam, God is As-Salam (the Source of Peace), and the goal of Islam is to bring about a state of submission to God that results in peace. Forgiveness is highly praised; the Qur'an (42:40) teaches that while retaliation is permitted, "whoever pardons and makes reconciliation, his reward is with Allah." Judaism also emphasises the link between justice and peace (Tzedek, Tzedek Tirdof — "Justice, justice you shall pursue," Deuteronomy 16:20). Buddhists see peace as beginning in the individual mind through meditation and the overcoming of anger and hatred (ahimsa). Without internal peace, external peace is impossible. Reconciliation ceremonies, such as those held at Corrymeela in Northern Ireland, practically apply these religious principles to heal divided communities.
Topic TD2 — Violence, Terrorism & Reasons for War
While religions theoretically prefer peace, they must also address the reality of human violence. Most major religions condemn terrorism — the deliberate use of violence against innocent civilians to achieve a political or religious aim. In Islam, the killing of an innocent person is equated to killing all of humanity (Qur'an 5:32), and the rules of war strictly prohibit targeting civilians. Violent protest is also generally discouraged in favour of peaceful, non-violent resistance (satyagraha), though some religious thinkers have argued that violence may be a last resort against extreme tyranny.
The reasons for war are often categorised into greed, self-defence, and retaliation. Wars fought for greed (land, resources) are universally condemned by religious traditions as a violation of the command not to covet. Wars of retaliation or revenge are also discouraged, as they perpetuate the cycle of violence. Self-defence is the only reason widely accepted as a legitimate justification for using force. In Islam, fighting is permitted for those who are being attacked or oppressed (Qur'an 22:39). However, even in self-defence, the use of force must be proportional and limited. The central religious challenge is whether any reason can truly justify the immense suffering and destruction that modern warfare entails.
Topic TD3 — Just War & Holy War
Just War theory (Jus ad Bellum), developed by Christian thinkers like St Augustine and St Thomas Aquinas, provides a moral framework for determining when it is permissible to go to war. The conditions include: (1) Just Cause (e.g., self-defence); (2) Legitimate Authority (declared by a state leader); (3) Right Intention (to restore peace); (4) Last Resort (all peaceful options exhausted); (5) Probability of Success (to avoid unnecessary slaughter); and (6) Proportionality (the good achieved must outweigh the evil). Once a war has begun (Jus in Bello), it must be fought using discrimination (protecting civilians) and proportionality in the use of weapons. This theory remains the standard for international law and military ethics today.
Holy War differs from Just War in that its primary motivation is religious. Historically, the Crusades are the most famous example in Christianity, where war was seen as a religious duty commanded by the Pope to reclaim the Holy Land. Today, the concept is mostly associated with the Islamic term Jihad. While "Greater Jihad" is the inner spiritual struggle, "Lesser Jihad" can refer to physical warfare in defence of Islam. However, the conditions for a legitimate Lesser Jihad are very similar to Just War: it must be defensive, declared by a legitimate leader, and avoid civilian casualties. The concept of Harb al-Muqaddas (Holy War) in Islam is often misunderstood; the Qur'an emphasises that "there is no compulsion in religion" (2:256). In 12-mark essays, contrasting the modern rejection of Holy War with the continuing relevance of Just War theory is a key analytical skill.
Exam tip: When discussing Just War, ALWAYS name Thomas Aquinas and list at least three of his conditions. This demonstrates the "source of authority" required for high marks in 5 and 12-mark questions.
Topic TD4 — Weapons of Mass Destruction, Pacifism & Peacemaking
The existence of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs) — nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons — has fundamentally changed the ethics of war. Most religious traditions now strongly condemn WMDs because they are inherently indiscriminate (killing civilians and soldiers alike) and disproportional (the destruction they cause is far greater than any possible good). The Catholic Church has moved from a position of "conditional acceptance" of nuclear deterrence to one of total condemnation. However, some still argue for deterrence — the idea that possessing nuclear weapons prevents war by making the cost of conflict too high. This "nuclear peace" is a controversial topic in both religious and secular ethics.
Pacifism is the total rejection of war and violence. Absolute pacifism (held by the Quakers and Jehovah's Witnesses) argues that all war is wrong because it violates the sanctity of life and Jesus' command to "love your enemies." Conditional pacifists believe war is generally wrong but may be the lesser of two evils in cases like stopping a genocide. Selective pacifism opposes specific types of war, such as those involving WMDs. Peacemaking is the active work of preventing conflict and building reconciliation. Famous examples include Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., whose non-violent resistance was rooted in his Christian faith, and the work of Pax Christi and Anglican Pacifist Fellowship. Religions also demand we help the victims of war, regardless of their side, motivated by the command to love one's neighbour. Charities like Christian Aid, Islamic Relief, and World Jewish Relief carry out this vital work globally.
Frequently Asked Questions
A Just War is a war fought under strict moral and legal criteria (e.g., last resort, declared by a legitimate authority, protecting civilians) to restore peace. A Holy War is a war fought for religious reasons, often believed to be commanded by God, and can be offensive in nature. Just War theory is more focused on ethical limits, while Holy War is focused on religious objectives.
Absolute pacifism is the belief that all war and violence are always wrong, without exception. Conditional pacifism is the belief that while war is generally wrong, it may be the lesser of two evils in extreme circumstances, such as stopping a genocide. Quakers are famous for their absolute pacifism.
Lesser Jihad refers to the external, physical struggle to defend Islam or protect the oppressed. It is often translated as 'holy war', but it has very strict conditions: it must be defensive, declared by a legitimate leader, and must not harm civilians, women, or children. It is distinct from 'Greater Jihad', which is the inner spiritual struggle.
Some Christians support the possession (not necessarily use) of nuclear weapons as a deterrent, arguing that the threat of 'Mutually Assured Destruction' (MAD) has prevented major world conflicts and thus maintains a form of peace. However, most denominations, including the Catholic Church, now condemn even the possession of nuclear weapons as an affront to God.
Forgiveness is seen as the psychological and spiritual foundation for lasting peace. In Christianity, Jesus taught to 'forgive seventy times seven' (Matthew 18:22), and the Lord's Prayer links our forgiveness by God to our forgiveness of others. Without forgiveness, the cycle of violence and retaliation continues indefinitely.