Buddhism — Beliefs & Practices

Topic B1 — The Dhamma & Three Marks of Existence

Buddhism, founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 5th century BCE in India, is a non-theistic religion or philosophy centred on human suffering and its resolution. The core teachings of the Buddha are collectively known as the Dhamma (Dharma), a Pali word meaning "teaching," "law," or "the way things are." The Dhamma is not a set of commands from a creator god but an insight into the true nature of reality. A key concept is dependent arising (Paticcasamuppada), which states that all phenomena arise in dependence upon conditions — nothing exists independently or permanently; everything is interconnected and in flux. This understanding dismantles the illusion of a fixed, independent self.

The Buddha encapsulated his insight in the Three Marks of Existence (Tilakkhana), which characterise all conditioned things. The first is Anicca (impermanence): everything is constantly changing and nothing lasts forever. The second is Dukkha (suffering or unsatisfactoriness): because everything is impermanent, clinging to things leads to inevitable pain and dissatisfaction. The third is Anatta (no-self or no-fixed-self): there is no permanent, unchanging soul or essence within a person. What we call "I" is merely a collection of changing mental and physical processes — the Five Aggregates (skandhas): form, sensation, perception, mental formations, and consciousness. In Mahayana Buddhism, this is further developed in the concept of Sunyata (emptiness), which posits that all phenomena are empty of inherent, independent existence. The ultimate goal is to realise these truths directly, leading to the end of suffering — Nibbana.

Topic B2 — The Buddha's Life & The Four Noble Truths

Siddhartha Gautama was born a prince in the kingdom of Lumbini (modern-day Nepal) around 563 BCE. Shielded from the harsh realities of life by his father, he lived in luxury until he encountered what are known as the Four Sights: an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a holy man (ascetic). These encounters revealed the universality of suffering and the possibility of a spiritual path beyond it. This led him to renounce his royal life and seek enlightenment. He initially practised severe asceticism before concluding it was not the answer — the Middle Way between extreme indulgence and extreme self-denial was the path forward. He finally attained enlightenment (Nibbana) while meditating under a Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, becoming the Buddha — "the Awakened One."

The core of his teaching is the Four Noble Truths. The first is Dukkha: life involves suffering, unsatisfactoriness, and imperfection. The second is Samudaya: the cause of suffering is craving or attachment (tanha), rooted in the Three Poisons of ignorance, greed, and hatred. The third is Nirodha: suffering can cease — this cessation is Nibbana. The fourth is Magga: the path to this cessation is the Noble Eightfold Path. This path is divided into three categories: Wisdom (Right Understanding, Right Intention), Ethics (Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood), and Meditation (Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration). Together, these eight aspects form a practical blueprint for living a life that leads away from suffering and towards enlightenment. The Eightfold Path is also sometimes visualised as the Wheel of Dhamma, represented in the Khanda wheel with eight spokes.

Topic B3 — Worship, Meditation & Festivals

Buddhist worship and practice are centred on the Triple Gem: the Buddha (the enlightened teacher), the Dhamma (his teachings), and the Sangha (the community of practitioners). Upon becoming Buddhist, practitioners "take refuge" in these three: "I take refuge in the Buddha, I take refuge in the Dhamma, I take refuge in the Sangha." Places of worship include temples, shrines, monasteries (viharas), and meditation halls (gompas). Worship often takes the form of Puja, a devotional ritual involving offerings of flowers, incense, candles, and food to a Buddha rupa (statue or image). This is not idolatry; the statue is a focus for devotion and a reminder of the qualities of enlightenment. Chanting of mantras and sutras, often using malas (prayer beads), is common.

Meditation is the heart of Buddhist practice. Samatha (calm/tranquility) meditation develops concentration through focused attention, often on breathing (anapanasati). Vipassana (insight) meditation aims to see things as they really are, directly perceiving the Three Marks of Existence. In Mahayana traditions, other forms include visualisation of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Buddhist festivals are tied to the life of the Buddha. Wesak (Vaisakha) is the most important, celebrating the Buddha's birth, enlightenment, and death (parinirvana) on the full moon of May. It is marked by acts of generosity, visiting temples, lighting lanterns, and renewing commitment to the precepts. Parinirvana Day marks the Buddha's final passing and is a time for reflection on impermanence.

Topic B4 — Buddhist Ethics: Precepts, Compassion & Perfections

Buddhist ethics are grounded in the understanding of Kamma (Karma), the law of moral cause and effect. Intentional actions create consequences that shape one's future and future rebirths. Good actions (kusala) lead to positive results; bad actions (akusala) lead to suffering. However, the ultimate ethical motivation in Buddhism is not merely to gain good karma but to develop compassion (Karuna) and loving-kindness (Metta) for all sentient beings. Metta is an unconditional, universal goodwill that wishes happiness and freedom from suffering for all beings without discrimination. It is cultivated through specific Metta meditation (loving-kindness meditation) practices, where the meditator extends goodwill progressively outward from themselves to all beings everywhere.

The foundation of Buddhist ethics for laypeople is the Five Moral Precepts (Pancasila). These are: to refrain from taking life (ahimsa), to refrain from taking what is not given, to refrain from sexual misconduct, to refrain from false speech, and to refrain from taking intoxicants that cloud the mind. For monastics, these are expanded into hundreds of rules in the Vinaya. In the Mahayana tradition, the ethical path is further developed through the Six Perfections (Paramitas): generosity (dana), morality (sila), patience (ksanti), energy (virya), meditation (dhyana), and wisdom (prajna). A Bodhisattva — an enlightened being who vows to remain in the cycle of rebirth to help all others achieve enlightenment — masters these perfections. This ethical framework, placing the alleviation of suffering at its core, provides a practical application of the Buddha's teachings in daily life and is directly comparable to the ethics of other religions on the syllabus.

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